^{^{Recreating the past for live events, TV and film}}

A brief history of the English Civil War

by Howard Giles Left click over small photos for enlargements.

Why did the war happen?

The English Civil War brought about significant liberties that we take for granted today. The name is rather misleading as fighting also took place in Scotland and Ireland - the military situation in the latter being a contributory cause of the war in the first place. Also, there were three distinct wars rather than just one. At the simplest level the war was caused by a power struggle between the forces of conservatism, represented by the unpopular King, Charles I, and those seeking a more modern constitution, headed by members of Parliament.

Religion also played a major role. Increasingly, many people wanted greater freedom of worship, rather than tolerate the state-organised system. In the highly religious 17^th Century, this issue became extremely emotive. To complicate matters further, Catholics were extremely unpopular, as England’s traditional enemies (Spain and France) were Catholic powers…and Charles’ queen, Henrietta Maria, was a French Catholic. Although Charles himself was sincerely Protestant, suspicions abounded.

Relations between the two sides gradually broke down. With the King and key opponents in Parliament seemingly unable or unwilling to compromise, it was inevitable that a clash of wills would occur. Charles acted on 4 January 1642, personally entering the House of Commons with troops in order to arrest five MPs for treason. However, his gamble failed – “the birds had flown”. Although the thought appalled all involved, open warfare now became inevitable.

For King or Parliament?

Generally speaking, who someone supported usually depended on where they lived. The main towns and cities, including London, supported Parliament, most rural areas backed the King, whilst many people initially at least tried to stay neutral. This meant that right from the start, King Charles was at a severe disadvantage, as most of the population and centres of industry were either hostile to his cause, or at least unsupportive. Families became divided on a matter of principle, whilst towns and villages found themselves in “no-man’s land” between rival garrisons, both likely to come seeking “voluntary” contributions, in money, provisions or both. The scene was set for a war which killed through battle or disease a greater percentage of the British population than World War One, and which left untold destruction and misery in its wake.

The Armies

With no standing army to draw upon, both sides had to rely on “trained bands”, essentially the “Home Guard”, the quality of which varied enormously, together with raw recruits. Some regiments were lucky enough to have experienced officers returned from the wars in Germany whilst others had to learn their new trade as they went along. Under the circumstances it is remarkable how well the armies managed in the field and under the terrifying conditions of battle.

Armies were divided into the infantry (the "Foote"), cavalry ("Horse"), dragoons, and artillery (the "Trayne"). The foote were organised into regiments and then companies, each divided into musketeers and pikemen, around equal in number at the start of the war but with the killing power of the musket gradually superceding the pike as the war developed. Eventually, the latter completely disappeared in many regiments. Orders from the officers were relayed by the drummers that accompanied each company.

The horse made up as much as half each army and were often the decisive factor on the battlefield. Many troopers were protected with back and breast plates, or thick leather buff coats. Orders were relayed by trumpeters.

The dragoons were effectively mounted infantrymen, who would ride into battle but dismount to fight with their muskets.

Cannon came in all sizes from small tactical pieces to large siege guns. The latter were very heavy and slow to move and fire. In battle, the usually light artillery pieces were rarely very decisive.

Like in most wars, C17th campaigning was generally hard and far from glamorous. Supplies could be difficult to procure and regular pay usually little more than a soldier's daydream. Life for the soldiers (and any unfortunate civilians caught up in it all) was generally harsh, with disease carrying off large numbers of civilians and killing far more soldiers than battlefield injuries. To make matters worse, the climate was unusually wet throughout the war, adding to the general suffering. Needless to say, recruiting became more difficult as the war continued. But when the drums began to beat, the armies marched....

The war begins

The first battle at Powick Bridge near Worcester was really little more than a skirmish, but this was soon followed by a major battle, at Edgehill in Warwickshire on 23 October. This was indecisive - neither side triumphed, nor did they simply run away (although many on both sides did). However, the King was able to advance on London, the heart of the Parliamentary cause.

While the Parliamentarian commander, the Earl of Essex, organised the defence of London, two of his regiments - those of Denzil Holles and Lord Brooke - were placed as a garrison into the town of Brentford, west of the city. On 12 November the fiery Royalist Prince Rupert fell upon them, destroying both regiments, many drowning in the Thames as they fled. This disaster provoked a swift reaction and soon 24,000 men from Essex’s army and the London Trained Bands barred the road to London at Turnham Green. Faced with superior numbers and not ready to face another major battle, King Charles I faced about and marched to Oxford. London would never be directly threatened again. Charles didn’t know it, but his best chance of victory had just slipped away.

Although battles were crucial in shaping the outcome of the war, there were far more sieges as victory ultimately depended on controlling resources - ports, towns, castles, houses and villages, and with them recruits, livestock, food supplies and the like. There were many famous sieges such as at Basing House and Newark, whilst others, as at Bolingbroke Castle, are not so well known. Whoever controlled the most resources had the strongest chance, and here Parliament held the advantage. Whether their cause could survive long enough to benefit from this remained to be seen.

Stalemate

In 1643 the King’s cause enjoyed many victories, but Parliament refused to give up, nor did Charles have enough men or resources to follow up and finish the job. Meanwhile, some previously peaceful gentlemen discovered that they had a talent for war. One such person was Oliver Cromwell MP, who raised a regiment of horse and led them to victory at Winceby on 11 October, the beginning of his meteoric rise as a military leader.

1644 saw the fortunes of Parliament improve significantly with an alliance with the Scots. The result was the siege of York and subsequent Battle of Marston Moor, a total disaster for the Royalists, commanded by Prince Rupert. Most of the Royalist army was lost and with it, York and the North. However, this was balanced in the South with Charles defeating his enemies at Cropedy Bridge in June and, more spectacularly, at Lostwithiel in Cornwall in August, when the whole of the Parliamentary infantry was trapped and forced to surrender. Would the war ever end? Could one side or the other gain a decisive advantage? Many doubted it. But Parliament had a plan…

The New Model Army

By late 1644 it had become clear that neither side possessed sufficiently professional armies to secure victory, and that something had to be done. The result was Parliament’s New Model Army, paid professions, led by experienced commanders. The Royalists also made efforts to put their army on a more professional basis but ultimately failed due to infighting and petty jealousies. The latter had hamstrung the Royalist war effort from the start, but in 1645 this proved terminal.

Sir Thomas Fairfax headed the New Model army as Commander in Chief, Oliver Cromwell led the horse, and the redoubtable Sir Phillip Skippon the foote. The army’s first major test was also one of its greatest triumphs. On 14 June 1645 it destroyed the King’s veteran Oxford army at the Battle of Naseby. To all intents and purposes, Charles had lost the war. Worst of all, his private papers were captured, showing that he had been actively seeking direct military aid from foreign powers - even Catholics - just about the worse thing one could do in the xenophobic atmosphere of 17^th century England.

Within a year the remaining Royalist forces and garrisons been mopped up, the final stronghold being Raglan Castle, pointlessly holding out until 19 August 1647, after the King had already surrendered to the Scots (who sold him to Parliament!).

The Second Civil War, 1648

Despite military defeat, Charles was still King and the vast majority of Parliamentarians believed he should be, despite his obvious faults. They believed negotiation was the way forward, but did not realise that the King had no intention of keeping any promises made to his captors. Instead, he secretly made an alliance with the Scots, who by 1647 were disenchanted with Parliament. The result of Charles’ intrigues was a Scots invasion and a number of Royalist risings, but due to poor co-ordination this new war ended in disaster, with both the Scots army and English Royalist forces swiftly crushed.

The execution of the King

By now, the mood of the New Model Army and many supporters, enflamed by political radicals, was ugly. Charles, this duplicitous “man of bloode”, could obviously not be trusted and could no longer be permitted to rule. Nor could he be exiled, as he would still constitute a dangerous threat. Even Cromwell, who had supported earlier attempts to secure a settlement, now felt that trial and execution was the only solution, however unpopular in some quarters. Accordingly, the King underwent a “show” trial, charged with waging war on his own subjects. The King’s defence was dignified but in vain. Many parliamentarians, including Sir Thomas Fairfax, thought regicide unacceptable, but none the less on 30 January 1649, Charles was beheaded. Although perhaps a pigheaded and stubborn man, he was certainly brave to the very end.

The Third Civil War, 1650-51

After campaigning in Ireland (controversial to this day), Oliver Cromwell found himself facing the young King Charles II, who had rallied the Scots to his cause. However, the New Model Army maintained its unbeaten record by massively defeating the numerically stronger but less well disciplined Scots at Dunbar on 3 September 1650.

Charles didn’t give up and in 1651 invaded England with an army of Royalists and Scots. Things though did not look good for Charles, his army disunited and suffering from low morale. On 3 September, the anniversary of Dunbar, the army was destroyed by Cromwell at Worcester - in a twist of fate, barely a stone's throw from the site of the first battle of the war in 1642, almost exactly nine years earlier. Charles fled and after various adventures, retired to exile.

Aftermath

Oliver Cromwell ruled Britain as “Lord Protector” until his death on 3 September 1658 – exactly 7 years after his “Crowning Mercy”, the Battle of Worcester. On his death his Son Richard took over but could not hope to fill his father’s shoes. The stability of the Government began to falter and in February 1660, General Monck and his men marched from Coldstream in Scotland to London without meeting resistance, ushering in a new parliament sympathetic to a restoration of the throne. On 25 May Charles II entered London as monarch. However, things could never be the same again - Charles had learned from his father’s failure and was careful to rule by consent rather than divine right. The liberties hard won in battle would survive, liberties we take for granted today.

Sources

The above article was based on knowledge accumulated over the years, including reading many works (some of which are noted below). Any mistakes or omissions, however, are entirely Howards!.

A brief history of the English Civil War

For King or Parliament?

The war begins

Stalemate

The Third Civil War, 1650-51

Aftermath

Sources

Suggested Reading

General history

Personalities

Battles, Sieges and Campaigns

The Soldiers

Updated 29 December 2006